INDIAN CULTURE AND HERITAGE

Ancient History of North India

India is the site of one of the famous civilizations of the ancient world, the others being the Mesopotamian, Chinese, Egyptian, Greek and the Mayan (Central America).The earliest known civilization in India dates back to about 3000 BC. Discovered in the 1920s, it was largely confined to the valley of the river Indus (which now flows through Pakistan and Ladakh, to name a few places) hence it acquired the name the Indus Valley civilization. This civilization was predominantly an urban concentrated in and around two principal towns, Mohenjodaro and Harappa, the ruins of which still exist.
The Great Bath, Mohenjodaro
Subsequent archaeological excavations established that this civilization was not restricted to the Indus valley but encompassed a wide area in the present day north-western and western India. Thus this civilisation is now familiarly known as the Harappan civilization, its main sites in India being Ropar in Punjab, Lothal in Gujarat and Kalibangan in Rajasthan.All the cities of the Indus Valley Civilization were well planned and were built with baked bricks of the same size; the streets cut each other at right angles, and had an elaborate system of covered drains. There was a fairly clear division of localities and houses for the upper and lower strata of society. There were also public buildings, the most famous being the Great Bath at Mohenjodaro and the spacious granaries. The people of this civilization knew the use of copper, bronze, lead and tin. The discoveries of bricks prove that burnt bricks were used extensively for both domestic and public buildings.
The people of the Indus Valley Civilization had domesticated animals including camels, goats, buffaloes and fowls. The presence of several seals depicting a humped bull indicate that this animal was known in those ancient times. The Harappans cultivated wheat, barley, peas and sesame and were probably the first to grow cotton for making yarn for clothes.
Humped bull
Trade was an important activity at the Indus Valley and the numerous seals discovered at the site suggest that each merchant or mercantile family had its own seal. These seals are in various quadrangular shapes and sizes, etched with human or animal figures. There is ample evidence that the Harappan civilization had extensive trade relations with the nearby regions in India, besides areas around the Persian Gulf including Sumer (modern Iraq)The figures of deities on the seals indicate that the people of Harappa worshipped a host of gods and had also evolved a set of rituals and ceremonies. No edifices or monuments survive, but a large number of human figurines have been discovered, including a steatite (gray/grayish-green stone with a soapy feel) bust of a man (probably a priest) and the figure of a dancing girl in bronze.
Dancing girl in bronze,Mohenjodaro
A large number of terracotta statues of the Mother Goddess (shakti) have also been unearthed, suggesting that she was commonly worshipped. Several conical and ring-like pieces of stone have also been found which are considered the rudiments of Shivalingas (phallic symbols of Shiva) and yonis (vulva), depicting the cosmic creative forces.By about 1700 BC, the Harappan culture began to decline, due to repeated flooding of its towns located on the river banks, coupled with the ecological changes which forced the desert to engulf the arable land. Some historians also claim that invasions by barbarian tribes of the northwest also contributed to the decline of the Harappan civilization.The initial migrations of the Aryan people into India began around 1500 BC. The Aryans came down from the Central Asian region, and entered India through the Khyber Pass. They intermingled with the local populace, and assimilated themselves into the social framework. They took up the agricultural lifestyle of their predecessors, and established small agrarian communities across the territory of modern Punjab.
Bust of a man,Mohenjodaro
The Aryans are believed to have brought with them the horse, developed the Sanskrit language (written in Devanagri Script) and made significant inroads into the prevailing faiths of the times. These factors played a crucial role in the shaping of Indian culture.Sanskrit is the basis of the majority of Indian languages. The religion of the Aryans, which sprung during the Vedic era, with its rich pantheon of Gods and Goddesses, and its storehouse of myths and legends, became the foundation of the Hindu religion as we know it today.The early religion of the Aryans was basically nature worship. The objects of nature – the sun, moon, water, earth, fire, each had a presiding deity, who had to be propitiated for peace and general well-being.
Lord Rama, the hero of theepic Ramayana
The Aryans developed a rich tradition. They composed the hymns of the four Vedas, the great philosophical poems that are at the heart of Hindu philosophy.
A settled lifestyle brought in complex forms of government and social patterns. This period saw the evolution of the caste system, and the emergence of kingdoms and republics. The events described in the two great Indian epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, are likely have occurred during the 1000 BC to 800 BC period.
In course of time, the Aryans got divided into tribes which had settled in different regions of northwestern India. Tribal chieftainship gradually became hereditary, though the chief usually functioned in consultation with either a committee or the entire tribe. Still later, with the creation of diverse kinds of vocation, the internal division of the Aryan society developed along caste lines.
Their social framework was composed mainly of the following groups: the Brahmana (priests and scholars), Kshatriya (warriors), Vaishya (farmers and traders) and Shudra(menial workers). It was, in the beginning, a division of occupations; as such it was open and flexible. Much later, caste status and the corresponding occupation came to depend on birth, and change from one caste or occupation to another became far more difficult.
A scene from the famous battleof Kurukshetra,described in the Mahabharata
The sixth century BC was a time of turmoil, of political and social transformations in India. It was during this period that Vardhaman Mahavira (599 BC-527 BC) founded Jainism while Gautama the Buddha (560 BC- 480 BC) propounded Buddhism.
These religions, preached non-violence towards all living creatures, tolerance and self-discipline. In the centuries that followed, the Buddhist monk-missionaries and monks spread their religion to other Asian countries including Sri Lanka China, Japan, Korea, to name a few, where it is practiced till today.
With land becoming property and society being divided on the basis of occupations and castes, conflicts and disorders were bound to arise. Organized power to resolve these issues therefore emerged, gradually leading to the formation of full-fledged state systems, growing into mighty empires.
By the end of the third century BC, most parts of Northern India were knit together into an empire by Chandragupta Maurya who ruled between 322-298 BC.
In 327 BC, Alexander the Great (356-323 BC), of Macedonia (modern Greece) crossed into northwest India. He conquered a large part of the Indian territory before his disgruntled generals, tired of war, forced him to return home. Alexander left behind Greek governors to rule over Indian territories won by him. These regions gradually got merged with the Indian states owing to wars and political upheavals.
However, the contact between the two cultures left an indelible impact on Indian art. The legendary Gandhara School of Art flourished in the Gandhara region (modern Afghanistan). It was the hallmark of Indo-Greek fusion art.Chandragupta’s son Bindusara (ruled between 298-272 BC) further extended the Mauryan empire over the entire subcontinent. The greatest Mauryan emperor was Ashoka the Great ( 286 BC-231 BC) the watershed of whose political career was the gory, gruesome war of Kalinga (modern Orissa).Overcome by the horrors unleashed by this war, he renounced weapons and violence forever. He became a Buddhist and zealously propagated and promoted the faith without any violence and coercion. He got his messages engraved on rocks and tablets using the local dialects and Brahmi a post-Harappan script.
Following Ashoka's death in 232 BC, the Mauryan empire began to disintegrate. This situation encouraged invaders from Central Asia to enter India in quest of power and fortune. As a result, several small kingdoms came into being, which soon passed into oblivion.
After the gap of a few centuries another mighty empire which arose, was the Gupta empire in the 4th century AD In fact this period is considered the golden age of Indian history. This empire lasted for more than two centuries, spanning a large part of the Indian subcontinent, with its administration much more decentralized than that of the Mauryas. By means of wars and matrimonial alliances with the smaller, neighbouring kingdoms, the empire's boundaries kept getting extended further.
The Gupta rulers patronized Hinduism which led to the resurgence of orthodox Hinduism. A famous Chinese traveler, Fa Hien, visited India during this period and recorded his experiences in the form of interesting chronicles. The world famous treasure troves of art namely Ajanta and Ellora caves were created during this period.
The Gupta period witnessed the revival of literature and culture. Several important treatises were written on a vast range of subjects – grammar, mathematics, astronomy medicine and erotica (The Kamasutra). The luminaries of this period include Kalidasa the famous playwright who created master pieces in Sanskrit, Varahamihira (505 AD-587 AD), a famous astronomer and Aryabhatta (476 AD-550 AD), the renowned mathematician and astronomer.At the fag end of the Gupta period, there arose what maybe hailed as the last empire in northern India. Harshavardhan (590-647AD) had inherited a small state in the upper Ganges valley in the year 606AD. But by the year 612 AD he had built up a vast army with which he forged nearly the entire territory lying north of the river Narmada, into an empire, which he ruled efficiently, for almost 42 years. He was an outstanding military leader, who tasted defeat only once in his lifetime, at the hands of the Chalukya king Pulakesin II when he attempted to invade the Deccan in the year 620 AD.
Harsha’s capital, Kannauj (modern Uttar Pradesh) was a flourishing centre of art and literature. Harsha himself was a distinguished poet and dramatist. He is well-known for two dramatic compositions Ratnavali and Naganada, written in Sanskrit
Born a Hindu, Harsha later became a devout Buddhist and forbade the killing of animals in his kingdom.His contribution to the society at large, include a number of stupas, monasteries, and several state hospitals to offer health services to the general public. The great Buddhist Convention, organised by Harsha at Kannauj in the year 643 AD turned out to be a grand event, reportedly attended by 20 kings and thousands of pilgrims from all over the country. The life and times of Harsha are described in the Harsha-Charita, a brilliant literary work by Bana Bhatta, the former’s court poet, and in the Si-yu-ki (Records of the Western world) written by the Chinese scholar- pilgrim, Hiuen-Tsang.
After Harsha's death, the entire northern India once again plunged into anarchy and chaos, after nearly four decades of peace and stability.
The invasions of the Huns (nomadic herdsmen, war-like people from the grasslands of Mongolia who terrorized, ransacked and destroyed much of Asia and Europe between the 3rd and 5th centuries AD) from the west, signalled the end of this glorious chapter of history, although initially they were defeated by the Guptas. After the decline of the Gupta empire, north India got fragmented into a number of petty kingdoms ruled by Hindu kings. The next wave of unification came only with the Muslims invasions.

Painting as an art form has flourished in India from very early periods as is evident from literary sources and also from the remnants that have been discovered.
Indian Paintings can be broadly classified as the murals & miniatures. Murals are huge works executed on the walls of solid structures. Classic examples are the paintings in Ajantha & Kailasantaha temple.
Miniature paintings are those executed on a very small scale on perishable material such as paper, cloth, etc., Though this style had been perfected by artisans under the various rules, not many remain today. Prime examples are the Rajasthani & Mughal miniatures.
Contemporary artists have kept up to the times & excel in their modern works, giving free expression to their imagination & artistic liberty.

MINIATURE PAINTINGS

The miniatures, as the name indicates were small works, which were made on perishable material & hence no definite proof of their birth & development can be traced.
In Bengal, Bihar & Orissa, Buddhist manuscripts were illustrated, mostly paintings of Buddha on palm leaves. They resemble the Ajantha style but on a miniature scale.
In Gujarat, illustrations in Jaina manuscripts can be seen. The style of the Jaina caves at Ellora were followed. Some illustrations were done on paper. In the later stages the fine application of colour diminished. There was also some Persian influence which spread from here to other places such as Mandu & Jaunpur.
The Mughal emperors introduced their own style of miniature paintings with Persian inspiration. Court scenes were depicted in grandeur. The background was usually hilly landscapes. Flowers & animals were also vastly depicted & in these the Indian artists applied their own skill to develop on the Persian ideas. The Rajput paintings can be put under two broad groups, the Rajasthani style & the Pahari style. The subject matter of the paintings were mostly religious & love subjects, based on Lord Rama & Lord Krishna. Court scenes were depicted as also royal portraits. Bold outlines & brilliant colours are characteristic of Rajasthani paintings.

In India, there is a vast profusion of folk music which varies according to locality. Though folk songs also follow the same base, classical music requires immense training & practice. In Indian music, musical sound is called nada & nada is considered as Brahman or Divine Reality itself. Classical Indian music can be classified into two distinct categories, the North Indian or Hindustani & the South Indian or Carnatic music. The essential features & basis of both the styles are the same, in the sense that both are spiritualistic in nature. Foreign influences due to invasions by Persians, Arabs,.. are more evident in the Hindustani form. There has been a constant intermingling & the styles that have evolved are the products of these various currents.


CARNATIC MUSIC

Carnatic music originated in the fertile plains of the Cauvery delta and flourished through the ages. Vaggeyakaras are the persons who composed many songs which are rendered in its original form to date.
The Trinities of Carnatic Music, Saint Thyagaraja, Muthuswamy Dikshithar and Syama Shastri were all born in Thiruvarur near Thanjavur and the songs composed by them have explored & exhibited the depth and the rich feeling in this form. The other notable composers are Patnam Subramaniya Iyer, Papanasam Sivan, Raja Swathi Thirunal, Annamacharyar, Purandaradasar.
The subject matter of the songs mainly dealt with the various Gods and Goddesses, extolling their lives, their virtues, reflecting the varied moods of humans like happiness, gratitude, fear, sorrow. Though Composers have also dealt with subjects like patriotism, natures bounty etc., their soul and heart were to a very great extent limited to the deities they considered prime. Music was also looked upon as a means of attaining Moksha ( Salvation ).
Sa Re Ga Ma Pha Dha Nee are the seven basic notations called the Sapthaswaras. The swaras Sa & Pa help select the sruthi/pitch of the singer. Re (Rishaba) & Gha (Ghandaram) are of three types each, Ma (Madhyamam) of 2 types, Dha (Dhaivatham) and Nee (Nishadham) of three types each and when grouped together these variations (6,2,6) combined to form the 72 main ragas, the Melakarthas. The Melakarthas are divided as Suddha Madhyama and Prathi Madhyama ragas based on their madhyama(ma) variations by Venkata Mahi as Venkata Mahi Chakra.
Ragas born from Melakartha Ragas are aptly termed as Janya Ragas. Janya Ragas are classified into three categories viz., Sampoornam - seven swaras, Shadavam - six swaras and Oudavam - 5 swaras. Janya ragas follow the Kartha raga ie., they contain the same swaras of the original raga in various permutations and 483 variations becomes apparent to form 34,766 Janya Ragas.
The Janya Ragas gets further subdivided as Upanga Raga, Bhasanga Raga and Vakra Raga. Upanga Raga allows for deletions and additions of swaras. Bhasanga Raga has swaras in addition to swaras from its original raga and the Vakra Raga has swaras in a non-sequential order.
The Ragas either follow an ascending order, " Aarohanam" or a descending order the "Avarohanam" and the composers took great care to adhere to the various rules when composing a song.
The song composed are set to thala depending on the number of beats. The thalas are divided into Thisra - three, Misra - four, Kanda - five, Sadhusra - seven, Sankeernam - nine and the song composed fits into one of the above. Aadhi, Rupakam and Chapu are some of the Thalas. The confluence of the Ragas and the Thalas have from early times been providing us with melodious patterns which when rendered with bhava (feeling) is an experience that has to be had to be believed.
Unnai thudhikka arul tha innisayudan
Bless me, O Lord! to praise thee through Music
Music is an ocean and I am singing praises of it, but from the shore. We are sure that maestros will join us to lead us through this ocean to glean the richness and beauty of this timeless traditional art that lives with us from the days of the vedas.

CLASSICAL DANCES OF INDIA


India can boast of an innumerable number of folk dances, each dance forming a specialty of a particular region or tribe. Each form will have its own specialty & grace, along with a set pattern of costumes & make-up.
The classical dance forms which have developed, have set rules that have been followed traditionally over the years. On the basic model, various gurus incorporate their own imaginative innovations, leading to various schools within a particular dance form. Apart from the gracious hand & leg postures & movements, the dancers have to acquire the skill of portraying various emotions faithfully in each expression on their face & each fluid movement of their hand, legs & in fact their whole body. Every part conveys some meaning in their graceful motion.
The various dance forms have also developed a particular form of make-up for the performance, which is a skill by itself. Several dance schools today, incorporate costume designing & make-up as special section of the curriculum. The costumes for all forms are elaborate & rich, but each form & style have their own traditional patterns set down. Jewels for the dancers are also specially created to suit their purpose. Flowers adorn their hair & in the case of portrayal of Gods, their necks as garlands. The hall is also richly decorated with flowers. Application of mehendi in various styles is also an essential part of the make-up in most forms.

Hinduism is supposed to be 'apauruseya', i.e., of impersonal origin & so also are the Gods of Hinduism. They are eternal & though the deities appear to be different & independent, they are really facets of the same Brahman, the Supreme God.
As Sri Ramakrishna says, there can be as many spiritual paths as there are spiritual aspirants & similarly there can really be as many Gods as there are devotees to suit the moods, feelings, emotions & social background of the devotees.
The Hindu scriptures were eloquent while describing the qualities of God. He is all-knowing & all powerful. He is the very personification of justice, love & beauty. He is ever ready to shower His grace, mercy & blessings on His creation.
From the Rig Veda, we come to know of the vedic gods eight Vasus, eleven Rudras, twelve Adityas, Indra & Prajapathi, being the Gods of earth, the heavens & the space.
The main Hindu Gods as we accept today can be broadly classified as Saiva Gods (Siva, His consort, His sons, His other forms), Vaishnava Gods (Vishnu, His consort, His various avatharams)& Sakthi or Saktha (Forms of Goddess Sakthi).

CULTURE OF INDIA
The term culture refers to a state of intellectual development or manners. The social and political forces that influence the growth of a human being is defined as culture.
Indian culture is rich and diverse and as a result unique in its very own way. Our manners, way of communicating with one another, etc are one of the important components of our culture. Even though we have accepted modern means of living, improved our lifestyle, our values and beliefs still remain unchanged. A person can change his way of clothing, way of eating and living but the rich values in a person always remains unchanged because they are deeply rooted within our hearts, mind, body and soul which we receive from our culture.
Indian culture treats guests as god and serves them and takes care of them as if they are a part and parcel of the family itself. Even though we don’t have anything to eat, the guests are never left hungry and are always looked after by the members of the family. Elders and the respect for elders is a major component in Indian culture. Elders are the driving force for any family and hence the love and respect for elders comes from within and is not artificial. An individual takes blessings from his elders by touching their feet. Elders drill and pass on the Indian culture within us as we grow.
“Respect one another” is another lesson that is taught from the books of Indian culture. All people are alike and respecting one another is ones duty. In foreign countries the relation between the boss and the employee is like a master and slave and is purely monetary whereas in Indian culture the relation between the boss and the employee is more like homely relations unlike foreign countries.
Helpful nature is another striking feature in our Indian culture. Right from our early days of childhood we are taught to help one another in need of help and distress. If not monetary then at least in kind or non-monetary ways.
Indian culture tells us to multiply and distribute joy and happiness and share sadness and pain. It tells us that by all this we can develop co-operation and better living amongst ourselves and subsequently make this world a better place to live in.
Even though India is a country of various religions and caste our culture tells us just one thing 'phir bhi dil hai hidustani '.